Carondelet: Swallowed Up By St. Louis

            Carondelet is a neighborhood of St. Louis City.  It is defined as the area between the Mississippi River, the River Des Peres, and Eichelberger and Alabama streets.[1]  Highway 55 also cuts right through the middle of Carondelet, cutting the neighborhood in half.  It is located south of downtown St. Louis and has been incorporated as part of the city since 1870.[2]  Also within the limits of the neighborhood of Carondelet, there are other debated neighborhoods as well.  Patch, another St. Louis neighborhood, has conflicting boundaries with Carondelet, making the two neighborhoods actually neighbors but also having some overlapping areas with each one.  Stein’s Town, the area in which many original German immigrants settled upon arrival in the area, is located in the South of Carondelet, technically within Carondelet’s borders. Holly Hills is also another example of this phenomenon that occurs in some neighborhoods. [3]  Although the borders can be somewhat conflicting in this particular case, the neighborhood of Carondelet is unique in its history.

            Carondelet’s uniqueness spurs from the fact that it was its own city growing up at around the same time as St. Louis.  Its population grew quite slowly, especially compared to St. Louis, which is why it was swallowed up by the city, not the other way around.  It was founded in 1767 by Clement DeLore Treget, a Frenchman who came with his wife and children to settle along the Mississippi River south of St. Louis.  It was originally named Louisbourg, after the French King Louis XV[4], but was later changed to honor the Spanish Governor General in 1795.[5]  By 1803, at the time of Louisiana Purchase, Carondelet consisted of 250 people living in about 50 homes.  In 1851, it had about 1200 residents.  It was slow-going for the city before it was incorporated into St. Louis.  The railroad came to town mid-century, bringing with it industry and rapid growth in population.  During the American Civil War, “Lincoln’s Gunboats” were built along the Mississippi and men supporting both the North and the South were living in St. Louis, a common occurrence in the area.[6]  Older residents tended to be Democrats and typically supporters of the South in the war, whereas, immigrants such as the Germans were Republicans, supporters of the North and anti-slavery advocates.  Henry T. Blow, father of Susan, the founder of the Des Peres School, was a Northern supporter.[7]  In 1873 Blow’s daughter founded the first American public Kindergarten established at the Des Peres School.[8]  Carondelet captured its own unique history apart from St. Louis that allowed it to prosper and change with the city.  Carondelet, previously known as Louisbourg, also went by another nickname.  It was sometimes refered to as “Vice Poche,” which means “empty pockets.”  Historians disagree on where this name came from.  Perhaps it was referring to the financial status of those living in the town, or even to those who visited to go to the Carondelet gambling arenas.[9]

            Having been founded by a Frenchman and being under both French and Spanish control, the city of Carondelet was heavily Catholic for a long time.  The Convent of the Sisters of St. Joseph was started in 1836.  Children in the area would be educated by those attending the convent until the neighborhood was incorporated into the city of St. Louis and public education was offered.  Susan Blow opened the Des Peres School in 1873, serving as the country’s first public Kindergarten.  In 1873, the state of Missouri required segregation of blacks and whites in public schools, so the first school for blacks was built in Carondelet.[10]  In 1875, the area for Carondelet Park was purchased for over $140,000, dedicated on the country’s 100^th “Birthday,” July 4, 1876, and it was originally named Independence Park just for that reason.[11]

            Carondelet Park is one of the main public places in the neighborhood.  Another neighborhood, Bevo’s Mill, also known as Morgan’s Ford, shares a border with the park.[12]  The park was built due to public demand.  While the city was building Forest Park to the north in the center of St. Louis, those to the south also wanted a park of their own.  It was opened in 1876 and today is lightly wooded, hosting sports fields and many walking trails.[13]  When the city of St. Louis became interested in building a zoo, those around Forest Park had their own objections to the idea, and the Carondelet Business Men’s Association stated that the citizens in Carondelet would be happy to host the zoo in Carondelet Park.  It was settled that the St. Louis Zoo would be built in Forest Park; however, it is interesting that Carondelet was even a candidate.[14]

            Highway 55, which cuts through the middle of Carondelet was almost complete in the 1960s, but work continued into the 1980s to ease traffic problems in the city.[15]  There may not have been much objection to the building of the highway due to its effort to help increase efficient transportation throughout the city.

Gentrification is not heavily taking place in the Carondelet neighborhood perhaps because of the industry along the Mississippi River, the overall condition of the neighborhood, or a number of any other factors.  There is at least one group, however, that is attempting to better the neighborhood through a home rehabilitation project.  The 21^st Century Carondelet Strategic Plan was put into action by the Carondelet Housing Corporation in January of 2009.  Five private local investors gained funding for this project.  They undertake the responsibility of buying run-down or vacant homes and completely rehabilitating them to sell on the market.  According to the organization’s website, three homes at the intersection of Minnesota and Holly Hills were completely gutted and re-done to “bring stability to a street-front.”  Two of those three houses were successfully sold. [16]  Not only is this a good way to beautify the neighborhood with a coat of fresh paint and a nice front porch for curb appeal, it may also prove to help induce gentrification in the Carondelet neighborhood in the future.  Only time will tell how well this process will work, but it is an excellent start to get the neighborhood up and moving once again.

            Today, the city is somewhat run-down and less than up to standards.  There is apparently a problem with prostitution in the area, according to a very recent article from the St. Louis Post-Dispatch.[17]  There are a total of 4,494 houses in the neighborhood, of which 847 are vacant, making nearly nineteen percent of the neighborhood with vacant housing.[18]  Just taking a drive around the neighborhood, one can see the differences between the homes surrounding Carondelet Park and those elsewhere.  The houses around the park are nice, old, well-kept, pricey homes; whereas, the rest of the neighborhood has the more typical old small brick homes.  In Carondelet, of the 4,500 or so homes, more than 3,800 were built prior to 1940.  The neighborhood experienced some housing growth in both the 1950s and 1980s, which correlates with the state trend at the time as well.[19]  Taking a drive through the neighborhood, one thing that really sticks out is the variety of homes in Carondelet.  It is unlike other neighborhoods in St. Louis where one could drive down several streets and hardly be able to tell the difference between each one.  Every house seems to be slightly different from the last.  Although the majority of houses are older, there is a variety among them.  It is not simply one little brick house after another.  The neighborhood streets are lined with one older brick home, and then the viewer could see newer buildings, even apartments in between.  There are tiny shotgun homes, big mansions, and regular sized bungalow style homes as well.[20]  The neighborhood has two gas stations and a large senior living home along the riverfront.  It also has many small bars, restaurants, and other “Mom and Pop shops.”  Some parts of town have a southern style with beautiful architecture.  Along Broadway, one can see the southern influence in homes with balconies and beautiful facades.  There are many schools in the neighborhood, some of which have historic significance.[21]

            Today nearly forty percent of residents in the neighborhood have not attained high school diplomas, but about thirty-two percent do have GEDs or have successfully finished high school, which is nearly three times the state average; on the other hand, however, the forty percent who have not finished high school is nearly three times the state average as well.[22]  The racial breakdown of residents eighteen years and older in the neighborhood primarily consists of a majority whites at about sixty-four percent of the total population and blacks at about twenty-nine percent.[23]

            For the future of Carondelet, there have been discussions about improving Interstate 55, which runs straight through the neighborhood.  In 2003, MoDOT began looking at the transportation needs of the southern half of St. Louis.  Currently, there is no funding to support any changes, but MoDOT has held meetings to get the opinions of those living in the area.  They realize that help is needed in creating a more beautiful streetscape, enhancing local transit, and modifying I-55 exits at Loughborough, Germania, and Carondelet, among other parts of the highway.  This plan has been titled the I-55 River Des Peres Communities Transportation Investment Plan and is still awaiting approval and funding in order for the processes to begin to be undergoing.[24]

            There have also been efforts around the city of St. Louis to improve the area’s industry, which has been on the downturn since the beginning of the recession several years ago.  Improvements to industry would help bring jobs back to the area, a much needed investment, particularly in the south, such as the Carondelet neighborhood.  Carondelet has historically always had industry along the riverfront[25] and this initiative will be beneficial to the residents and the city in general.  A Post-Dispatch article stated that the former Carondelet Coke site will be taken over by a food manufacturing company and they intend to begin building the plant in the summer of 2014.[26]  By building a new factory, this will not only clean up the cityscape in the neighborhood, but will also create jobs and hopefully begin the better the Carondelet area.

            The city of St. Louis does a good job at trying to get public opinion on new projects, especially those aimed at improving the city as a whole.  Mayor Slay wholeheartedly loves the city and would like to see it become great again.  St. Louis does face many problems, but over time, Slay hopes to improve it.  There is talk about repairing St. Louis City Hall, but before undergoing that long, expensive process, the city will be holding meetings to see what other improvements residents would like to see.  A meeting was held in April at the Carondelet Rec-Plex.[27]  At least those living in the neighborhood know that they have a voice in the city and can express their own thoughts in a meeting close to home. Carondelet is close to stabilization in terms of residency.  Between 1990 and 2000, they lost about five percent of their population, which is actually not bad compared to the rest of the city of St. Louis.[28]  Carondelt’s history adds a little something extra to the city of St. Louis.  Taking a look at Carondelet, one can truly see all of the different influences that have reached the city.  Just taking a drive around the neighborhood, one can see all of the different architectural influences that have come to the city.  St. Louis has a long and rich history and Carondelet’s independent story helps build on the story of the city as a whole.

            Carondelet was once an independent city swallowed up by the rapid growth of the city of St. Louis.  With the major expansion of St. Louis, it can be difficult to simply imagine what the city looked like in the past.  “Commons fields” were gathered up to create parks and new neighborhoods.  What was once farmland became the heart of the city today.  Even within the last fifty years, so much has changed in St. Louis.  It is important to keep ties with the past and to see the city on a timeline, viewing all of the changes that had to take place to make it the major American city that it is today.  The Mississippi River, great for transportation means, made these two cities a possibility.  St. Louis will continue expanding, but the little hamlet that is Carondelet will always hold its own personal unique history both apart from and a part of the city of St. Louis.

Bibliography

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Currier, Joel. "Dear john letters from St. Louis police aim to curb prostitution ." stltoday.com. http://www.stltoday.com/news/local/crime-and-courts/dear-john-letters-from-st-louis-police-aim-to-curb/article_e776da1c-d103-5f70-a795-2ccbb55e32df.html (accessed May 1, 2014).

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Pister, Nicholas J C. "Before fixing St. Louis' City Hall, official wants input from public on other improvements : News." stltoday.com. http://www.stltoday.com/news/local/govt-and-politics/nick-pistor/before-fixing-st-louis-city-hall-official-wants-input-from/article_36fb17cc-d2ad-5a2d-bf63-e0451ee9f7e7.html (accessed May 2, 2014).

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[1] "Carondelet." The City of St. Louis Missouri. https://stlouis-mo.gov/neighborhoods/profile.cfm?neighborhood=Carondelet (accessed May 1, 2014).


[2] "The Carondelet Historical Marker." The Civil War Muse . http://www.thecivilwarmuse.com/index.php?page=carondelet-historical-marker (accessed May 1, 2014).


[3] "History of the City of Carondelet." History of the City of Carondelet. http://carondeletcity.tripod.com/history.html (accessed May 1, 2014).


[4] "History of the City of Carondelet." History of the City of Carondelet. http://carondeletcity.tripod.com/history.html (accessed May 1, 2014).


[5] "The Carondelet Historical Marker." The Civil War Muse . http://www.thecivilwarmuse.com/index.php?page=carondelet-historical-marker (accessed May 1, 2014).


[6] [6] "The Carondelet Historical Marker." The Civil War Muse . http://www.thecivilwarmuse.com/index.php?page=carondelet-historical-marker (accessed May 1, 2014).


[7] "Groth Guide to Carondelet." . http://nextstl.com/2011/08/carondelet/ (accessed May 2, 2014).


[8] "The Carondelet Historical Marker." The Civil War Muse . http://www.thecivilwarmuse.com/index.php?page=carondelet-historical-marker (accessed May 1, 2014).


[9] "Carondelet." History of St. Louis Neighborhoods -. https://stlouis-mo.gov/archive/neighborhood-histories-norbury-wayman/carondelet/text6.htm (accessed May 12, 2014).


[10] "Carondelet." History of St. Louis Neighborhoods -. https://stlouis-mo.gov/archive/neighborhood-histories-norbury-wayman/carondelet/text6.htm (accessed May 12, 2014).


[11] "Carondelet." History of St. Louis Neighborhoods -. https://stlouis-mo.gov/archive/neighborhood-histories-norbury-wayman/carondelet/text6.htm (accessed May 12, 2014).


[12] "History of the City of Carondelet." History of the City of Carondelet. http://carondeletcity.tripod.com/history.html (accessed May 1, 2014).


[13] "History of the City of Carondelet." History of the City of Carondelet. http://carondeletcity.tripod.com/history.html (accessed May 1, 2014).


[14] "The Saint Louis Zoo: If Not Forest Park, Where?." Missouri History Museum. http://www.historyhappenshere.org/node/6856 (accessed May 1, 2014).


[15] "Origins of the Federal Aid-Highway Act." Missouri's Interstate History. http://www.modot.org/interstate/MissourisInterstateHistory.htm (accessed May 2, 2014).


[16] "Our Projects." Carondelet Housing Corporation. http://carondelethousing.org/carondelet_projects.html (accessed May 1, 2014).


[17] Currier, Joel. "Dear john letters from St. Louis police aim to curb prostitution ." stltoday.com. http://www.stltoday.com/news/local/crime-and-courts/dear-john-letters-from-st-louis-police-aim-to-curb/article_e776da1c-d103-5f70-a795-2ccbb55e32df.html (accessed May 1, 2014).


[18] "Carondelet." The City of St. Louis Missouri. https://stlouis-mo.gov/neighborhoods/profile.cfm?neighborhood=Carondelet (accessed May 1, 2014).


[19] "City Data." Geo St. Louis. http://dynamic.stlouis-mo.gov/citydata/newdesign/output.cfm (accessed May 1, 2014).


[20] [20] "The Carondelet Historical Marker." The Civil War Muse . http://www.thecivilwarmuse.com/index.php?page=carondelet-historical-marker (accessed May 1, 2014).


[21] "The Carondelet Historical Marker." The Civil War Muse . http://www.thecivilwarmuse.com/index.php?page=carondelet-historical-marker (accessed May 1, 2014).


[22] "City Data." Geo St. Louis. http://dynamic.stlouis-mo.gov/citydata/newdesign/output.cfm (accessed May 1, 2014).


[23] "Carondelet." The City of St. Louis Missouri. https://stlouis-mo.gov/neighborhoods/profile.cfm?neighborhood=Carondelet (accessed May 1, 2014).


[24] "I-55 & River Des Peres Study." Missouri Department of Transportation. http://www.modot.org/stlouis/major_projects/i55andriverdesperes.htm (accessed May 2, 2014).


[25] "Carondelet." History of St. Louis Neighborhoods -. https://stlouis-mo.gov/archive/neighborhood-histories-norbury-wayman/carondelet/text6.htm (accessed May 12, 2014).


[26] Bryant, Tim. "St. Louis Area's Industrial Market Clearly on the Mend : Business." stltoday.com. http://www.stltoday.com/business/local/st-louis-area-s-industrial-market-clearly-on-the-mend/article_0cc33fbb-2aa1-5a3d-b027-e52616a76216.html (accessed May 2, 2014).


[27] Pister, Nicholas J C. "Before fixing St. Louis' City Hall, official wants input from public on other improvements : News." stltoday.com. http://www.stltoday.com/news/local/govt-and-politics/nick-pistor/before-fixing-st-louis-city-hall-official-wants-input-from/article_36fb17cc-d2ad-5a2d-bf63-e0451ee9f7e7.html (accessed May 2, 2014).


[28] "Groth Guide to Carondelet." . http://nextstl.com/2011/08/carondelet/ (accessed May 2, 2014).

Syrian Immigration to St. Louis

Many immigrant groups made the long and difficult journey to America to settle in St. Louis. From all over the world, people flooded to the middle of an unknown country. With so many large groups such as the Germans and Italians in St. Louis, it can be difficult to remember those smaller bunches that made the same difficult decision to leave their homeland to attempt to live the American dream. Oftentimes immigration to America at the turn of the twentieth century focuses so heavily on European groups that the other “outsiders” are disregarded and forgotten. One smaller and often overlooked group are the Syrians, a hard-working and family-oriented group who began arriving in St. Louis in the 1880s. [1] In the busy St. Louis immigrant communities, Syrians were not seen as a major player; however, they have left a lasting imprint on the city. 

In order to examine a specific immigrant group to the St. Louis area, it is important to gain some background information about the group on the national scale. The Syrians came to America with Turkish passports, from a part of the world then known as the Ottoman Empire; however, they referred to themselves as Syrians, even though they were migrating from present day Lebanon, which was then referred to as Mount Lebanon.[2] The first immigrant arrived in 1854, which was unusual because many would not follow until the 1880s.[3] Syrian immigration nation-wide became steady in the 1870s, peaked in 1914, declined during WWI, and rose in the 1920s before finally declining after the Immigration Quota Act of 1929.[4] Many arrived in America with the hopes of making a great deal of money and returning to their homeland. The few who actually returned to Lebanon proved to have a profound impact on Lebanese society, giving more freedoms to women, a successful middle class, and an overall positive outlook on life. [5]

The Syrians who arrived in St. Louis started off in modern day Syria, but moved to modern-day Lebanon to avoid religious persecution. The majority of those who came to America, and all of those who arrived in St. Louis, were of the Maronite Catholic Church and had been afraid of persecution by the Ottoman Turks for following St. Maron. Because of this, they moved to Lebanon.[6] Since the Maronites were constantly persecuted, many fled to nearby Cyprus, while others fled to distant lands such as America.[7]

The story of the Syrians in St. Louis can be told through their church, St. Raymond’s Maronite Catholic Church, built in 1912. This church is still in existence today and it is an excellent starting point for discussions of the Syrian immigrants. Their history is rich and so closely connected to their faith that it only makes sense to begin there. This current church replaced the first Maronite church in St. Louis, St. Anthony of the Desert, built in 1898.[8] Even the simple dates on these two churches provide a great example of the Syrian immigration patterns in St. Louis. The tie to their faith is evident in the need for places of worship and the expansion of the church due to population increase. They began arriving heavily in St. Louis in the 1890s, which correlates to the creation of their first church, St. Anthony, in 1898.[9]

In St. Louis, the Syrian community which established itself in “Little Syria,” in what is now referred to as the Soulard neighborhood, was established by a group from Hadchit, in Modern day North-Central Lebanon. This neighborhood was located between what are now Choteau, Plum, 4th, and 2nd streets.[10] One of the first pastors at St. Raymond’s Maronite Church came directly from Hadchit in order to become priest.[11] The story passed down within St. Raymond’s Maronite Church says that eleven immigrants first arrived in St. Louis in 1856, starting off in tenement houses along the riverfront north of St. Louis. The wave of immigration did not really begin until the 1890s, whereas before it was simply a trickle of people arriving. They had hopes to return to Lebanon after reaching success in America, but they decided to stay.[12]

The groups that ended up in St. Louis were all from an area known as Mount Lebanon, specifically a town called Hadchit. An immigrant interviewed in 1976 commented that “maybe all St. Louis Syrian families are related far enough back,”[13] referring to the idea that these families probably would have known each other back in the homeland. In the Ottoman Empire, these families were originally living in modern day Syria, but were forced to move to Mount Lebanon due to religious and social pressures, and were eventually forced out of the Empire due to the same pressures. They were continually being harassed in Syria, so they decided to make the final decision to move to America. 

Many factors pushed the Syrians out of the Ottoman Empire. Most Middle Eastern countries knew little, if anything at all about America before the turn of the twentieth century. There was not even a common name for “America” in any Middle Eastern countries until nearly 1900.[14] The Syrians of Mount Lebanon were an exception. This group was heavily influenced by American missionaries through the education system in Syria. The high education rates and Christian influence allowed for this group to become more knowledgeable about the west.[15]

These Syrians originally left Syria for Mount Lebanon, or modern-day Lebanon, due to conflict with Ottoman Turks, and once again influenced to leave, this time moving from Lebanon to America. One push factor involved conflict between Maronite Christians and the Druze in 1840 and 1860. The Druze and Maronites, among other Christians, had cooperated well in the area known as Mount Lebanon from the sixteenth century until the mid-19th century. At that time, the Druze began to exert massive control over the Maronites, where previously they had encouraged their religious group and supported peace between the two cultures.[16] Higher birth rates among the Maronites as opposed to the Druze also caused further conflict, helping the Maronites to rise in power, leaving Druze to feel threatened.[17] The Druze are a branch of Islam with which many Christians in Syria had engaged in conflict with. In Mount Lebanon, there had been numerous massacres and disturbances between the Druze and Maronites, two major occurrences taking place in 1840 and 1860.[18]

Christianity was a major component in Syrian immigrants to America. Their culture was fully enriched in their religion and it was also the reason for their emigration from Syria. Ninety percent of Syrian immigrants to America were Christians.[19] The religious persecution they faced in the Ottoman Empire became the reason many Syrians fled for America. The Ottoman Turks were Muslim and there was constant violence between the two religious groups. Therefore, the minority group of Christians would be the ones to flee. Many Protestant missionaries also influenced Syrians to make the journey to America.[20] The Syrians who came to St. Louis were Maronite Catholic. In 1912, there were no Maronite bishops or seminaries in America, so the immigrants in St. Louis had to send for a preacher from their homeland. Father Joseph Karam headed the Maronites in St. Louis from 1912-1944.[21] Still today St. Raymond’s in St. Louis is the only Maronite Church in the state of Missouri and it was the first established west of the Mississippi River. 

They also felt pressures due to an increased involvement in ever-expanding trade. This globalization process of opening the Middle East with Europe in particular made the country more reliant on cash instead of ancient barter traditions that were much more common for these people. A “silk crisis” also occurred in 1890 due to competition with cheaper Chinese silks in the European market, causing some to seek out a new life elsewhere. Also due to Lebanon’s access to the Mediterranean and involvement in trade, it became easier for people to emigrate. They had easier access to ships and other transportation means. It was not simply that the Syrians wanted to head for America in particular; they wanted to leave Syria/Lebanon in general. Possibly 45% of Mount Lebanon’s population emigrated between 1860 to 1914. Many of those who left were young men and it is thought that many of the young men who left were seeking to evade military service.[22]

On top of it all, missionary schools were hard at work introducing Western culture to the Middle East, appealing to the young populations. This influx of new culture and ideas was appealing to the young population in Syria/Lebanon and they wanted to seek it out for themselves. Of course, the basic freedoms and American growth and wealth stories influenced those emigrating from the Middle East. [23]

The push and pull factors of the waves of Syrian immigration from the 1850s through the 1910s are necessary to gain an understanding of the group. Why would a people so unfamiliar with America and most of the West ever decide it was a good idea to travel thousands of miles away from their homeland? They faced hardships in Syria, but they were assured their situation would improve in America, troubles would calm down in Syria, and they would one day return home. Their religion held them together as a group in their homeland and in their new home across the globe in America. In St. Louis in particular, the Syrians found comfort in their religious life. This religion and the tensions with others is also one of the reasons they left their homeland in search of something better. Persecution at home and the occasional story of great success in America were the driving forces among this group, a common factor for many immigrant groups at the time. 

Syrians who came to America were escaping religious persecution in the Ottoman Empire and wanted anything to get out. “The question of the selection of their destination remained unimportant.” Syrians almost seemed not to care where they were heading as long as it was away from Syria and the Ottoman Turks. Interestingly, some of those Syrians who were refused entry into the United States settled in Brazil and Argentina in South America.[24] The circumstances that drove them from the Ottoman Empire gave the immigrants a desire for anything better. Many were simply ignorant of general geography and had little idea as to how large the Americas were. Many Syrians simply wanted to get to America; it did not matter if it was North or South.[25]

Syrians fled oppression of the Ottoman Empire to America, where they first settled in New York City and Boston, before they realized the factory life that was available in the East was not suitable for them. They decided to trek westward where they could follow business endeavors instead.[26] In at least one case, an individual was smuggled across the Mexican border to come to America. One individual John Shahadle Jacob claimed to come to St. Louis through Philadelphia, but later confessed after an investigation that he and friends were smuggled across the Mexican border into America.[27] This example shows how widespread Syrian immigration was in the United States. To show this connection between Missouri and Mexico establishes a greater understanding of the ways in which Syrians were able to arrive at their destination in the middle of the United States. 

In a similar way to the nationwide pattern, those who came to St. Louis often started out as peddlers and eventually rose to become grocers or open stores of other means. Peddling was not seen as a long-term profession but as a beginning in America, and it was essential to these immigrants. Moreover, peddling was a means of employment and was key to the assimilation process. It allowed for immigrants to become more accustomed to American culture and to learn the language.[28] An article stated that “you seldom find a Syrian engaged in manual labor. He starts out on a business career.” This was found to be true in the St. Louis region as well as nationwide.[29]

There was a documented case of Syrians beaten and robbed while trying to sell their goods in the mining town of Macon, Mo. In this instance, Syrians from other parts of the area arrived to assist in the apprehension of the suspects in this case. Syrians from as far away as Quincy, Illinois came in support of their fellow Syrians.[30] Those Syrians who assisted in this ordeal were quoted as saying, 

“Syrians came to America because it was known as a liberty-loving country and to escape the harsh rule of the Ottoman Empire… but they had never heard of a more brutal crime in the Orient than their kinsmen had been the victims of here.”[31]

Although many started out as peddlers, these immigrants always searched for a way to rise in society and, somewhat unique to St. Louis, many Syrian immigrants were drawn to a life in politics. 

Starting as early as 1911, the Slay family was on the political scene in the area.[32] Present-day mayor Francis Slay is a descendent of this same group of Slay politicians. Prominent names in the Syrian population of St. Louis also included Mizerany, Khoury, and Webbe.[33] Looking back on it, an interviewee stated that nearly all of the Syrian family names in the St. Louis area would be found in the political scene in some way in their history.[34] It was suitable for a Syrian immigrant to get involved as an alderman because he could relate to his neighborhood and Syrian-Americans would support “one of their own.” The immigrants had excellent social skills and could successfully work their way up the political ladder in St. Louis. 

Syrian immigrants in St. Louis showed some similarities to immigrants elsewhere in the nation. Although the bulk of Syrians in St. Louis arrived in the late 1880s and 1890s, Syrian immigration increased nationwide by 50 percent from 1900 to 1901.[35] According to a survey in 1907, ninety-four percent were coming to join friends and family in America.[36] In 1890, Syrian immigrants began arriving in St. Louis from other parts of the country, primarily the New England Region, although some were coming up from the South, according to Harper Barnes.[37] According to Barnes, many Syrians were “often better educated than other immigrants of the time.”[38] This education is attributed to the Catholic influence in Mount Lebanon.[39] This would allow them to succeed in many endeavors they wished to accomplish by coming to America.

Some of the first mentions of Syrians in St. Louis were through the news surrounding the World’s Fair.[40] Although these individuals did not settle in St. Louis as immigrants, they brought with them a particular culture that St. Louis could see and become exposed to if only within the context of the World’s Fair. Some found difficulties trying to return home after the World’s Fair, such as a group working at the Morocco exhibit. This exhibit underwent a change in ownership and the new owner at the conclusion of the Fair would not agree to pay the passage for the individuals to return home to Syria.[41] While others had to find their own way home, most Syrians working at the World’s Fair returned home through New York.[42] In addition, Syrians were used in the “shows” at the World’s Fair by being subjected to “scientific” research. Along with Native Americans, Africans, Chinese, and many others, they were subjected to tests and exams to “prove” the superiority of the white race above these other “primitive tribes.”[43]

Throughout the country, Syrians were referred to by many names. Syrians were sometimes acknowledged as “Turks” since they were coming from the Ottoman Empire, where there was a great mixture of cultures and ethnic groups. Some in America were simply ignorant of the differences in the people of the Middle East.[44] Greeks and Syrians were often confused nationwide. An excerpt from the St. Louis Republic from New York explained that “the Greeks and Syrians are indiscriminately mixed, [it is] difficult to distinguish them.”[45]

There was never an outright hatred for Syrians in St. Louis; however, that could be based on their relatively small population. St. Louis was full of immigrants, of which Syrians were a very small proportion. Although overall Syrians were successfully accepted into St. Louis society, some women in the area had a differing opinion of immigration groups in general. Some groups such as Turks and Syrians were given more rights than women, which caused women to voice their opinion. One even sent a letter to the editor of the Post Dispatch to express her outrage at this.[46] Not only was this an issue in women’s rights but it is also one example explaining how Syrians were received in St. Louis. On the other hand, some individuals such as Mrs. Frank de Garmo wanted to care for the immigrants and help them succeed. She taught literacy to immigrants such as Syrians, Croatians, and Serbians in St. Louis.[47] Syrians seemed to have been accepted well into St. Louis society and were surely able to make their own way in America. 

Syrians made their way successfully in St. Louis. Although their original intent was not to stay in St. Louis forever, but to return home with their money earned, they made the decision to stay put due to their positive acceptance and the way of life they had built for themselves. Their strong ties to the Maronite Catholic Church allowed them to create a community for themselves, with generations of rising group leaders who could influence the world around them. Although they were a small group in comparison to the many other immigrants who sought a new life in St. Louis, they still managed to make a name for themselves, one that still exists today. 

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Clarke, Lulu. 1909. “Letters From The People”. St.Louis Post - Dispatch (1879-1922), Nov 11. http://search.proquest.com/docview/577859083?accountid=176.


Dehler, Tamie. "Genealogy: Syrian, Lebanese Immirants arrive in US in 1870s ." (2009), http://tribstar.com/history/x1896315608/Genealogy-Syrian-Lebanese-immigrants-arrived-in-U-S-in-1870s (accessed September 21, 2013).



Edwards, Rebecca. New Spirits: Americans in the "Gilded Age" 1865-1905. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.



Fersan, Eliane. "Syro-Lebanese Migration: 1880 to Present, Push and Pull Factors." Middle East Institute. http://www.mei.edu/content/syro-lebanese-migration-1880-present-“push”-and-“pull”-factors (accessed September 30, 2013).



“Foreigners Going Home,” The St. Louis Republic. (St. Louis, Mo.), 27 Nov. 1904. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress. <http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84020274/1904-11-27/ed-1/seq-27/>



Hannon, Robert E. 1986. St. Louis: its neighborhoods and neighbors, landmarks and milestones. [St. Louis]: St. Louis Regional Commerce and Growth Association.



Hewes Toft, Carolyn. Soulard: the Ethnic Heritage of an Urban Neighborhood. St Louis MO: Washington University Press.



Husinga, Joan. The Churches of Soulard. St. Louis MO: COS Inc., 1998.



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Issawi, Charles. "The Historical Background of Lebanese Emigration, 1800-1914 ." World Lebanese Cultural Union. http://www.ulcm.org/docs/default-source/newletter/the-historical-background-of-lebanese-emigration-1800-1914.pdf?sfvrsn=4 (accessed November 17, 2013).



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“Syrians Beaten and Robbed,”The St. Louis Republic. (St. Louis, Mo.), 17 Oct. 1902. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress. <http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84020274/1902-10-17/ed-1/seq-5/>




Tabar, Paul. Lebanon: a Country of Emigration and Immigration. Beirut: Institute for Migration Studies, 2010. http://www.aucegypt.edu/gapp/cmrs/reports/documents/tabar080711.pdf (accessed September 20, 2013).



"The Massacres of 1840-1860 in Mount Lebanon." Cedarland. http://www.kobayat.org/data/documents/historical/massacres1840.htm.




Thompson, Elizabeth. "Akram Fouad Khater, Inventing Home: Emigration, Gender, and the Middle Class in Lebanon 1870-1920." The American Historical Review 107 (2002), http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/532837 (accessed September 20, 2013).




Truzzi, Oswaldo M. S., “The Right Place at the Right Time: Syrians and Lebanese in Brazil and the United States: A Comparitive Approach,” Journal of American Ethnic History.. V. 16 no. 2. Winter 1997




“Two Syrians to Work Way Through State Univeristy,” The St. Louis Republic. (St. Louis, Mo.), 04 Aug. 1905. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress. <http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84020274/1905-08-04/ed-1/seq-14/>



Younis, Adele. The Coming of the Arabic-Speaking People to the United States. New York: Center for Migration Studies, 1995.








[1] Ami Ayalon. "The Arab Discovery of America in the Nineteenth Century." 5. Middle Eastern Studies 20 (1984), http://www.jstor.org/stable/4283027.
[2] Tamie Dehler. "Genealogy: Syrian, Lebanese Immirants arrive in US in 1870s ." (2009), http://tribstar.com/history/x1896315608/Genealogy-Syrian-Lebanese-immigrants-arrived-in-U-S-in-1870s.
[3] Ami Ayalon. "The Arab Discovery of America in the Nineteenth Century." 5. Middle Eastern Studies 20 (1984), http://www.jstor.org/stable/4283027.
[4] Tamie Dehler. "Genealogy: Syrian, Lebanese Immirants arrive in US in 1870s ." (2009), http://tribstar.com/history/x1896315608/Genealogy-Syrian-Lebanese-immigrants-arrived-in-U-S-in-1870s
[5] Elizabeth Thompson."Akram Fouad Khater, Inventing Home: Emigration, Gender, and the Middle Class in Lebanon 1870-1920." The American Historical Review 107 (2002), http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/532837.
[6] Janet Baker & Ramona Milford. "Video History" St. Raymond's Maronite Cathedral. http://www.straymondsmaronitecathedral.com.
[7] Simone Paturel. “Reconstructing the History of the Cypriot Maronites.” Journal of Cyprus Studies 15, no. 37 (September 2009): 19-39. Academic Search Elite, EBSCOhost.
[8] Lebanon and it’s Cuisine. St. Raymond’s Maronite Catholic Church.
[9] Huisinga, Joan. The Churches of Soulard. St. Louis, Missouri, COS Inc, 1998.
[10] Ibid.
[11] Jennifer Brinker. "Lebanese priest, parish weave tale of dedication, commitment of Maronite Church here, abroad." St. Louis Review (2012), http://stlouisreview.com/article/2012-02-14/lebanese-priest.
[12] Janet Baker & Ramona Milford. "Video History" St. Raymond's Maronite Cathedral. http://www.straymondsmaronitecathedral.com.
[13] Harper Barnes. “Lebanese Impact on St. Louis.” St. Louis General Scrapbook, V. 19. South Side Journal 1976. p 74.
[14] Ami Ayalon. "The Arab Discovery of America in the Nineteenth Century." 5. Middle Eastern Studies 20 (1984), http://www.jstor.org/stable/4283027.
[15] Charles Issawi. "The Historical Background of Lebanese Emigration, 1800-1914 ." World Lebanese Cultural Union. http://www.ulcm.org/docs/default-source/newletter/the-historical-background-of-lebanese-emigration-1800-1914.pdf?sfvrsn=4.
[16] Kamal Salibi. "Druze History." Druze Heritage Foundation. http://www.druzeheritage.org/dhf/Druze_History.asp
[17]Charles Issawi."The Historical Background of Lebanese Emigration, 1800-1914 ." World Lebanese Cultural Union. http://www.ulcm.org/docs/default-source/newletter/the-historical-background-of-lebanese-emigration-1800-1914.pdf?sfvrsn=4
[18] "The Massacres of 1840-1860 in Mount Lebanon." Cedarland. http://www.kobayat.org/data/documents/historical/massacres1840.htm.
[19] Oswaldo M. S. Truzzi, “The Right Place at the Right Time: Syrians and Lebanese in Brazil and the United States: A Comparitive Approach,” Journal of American Ethnic History.. V. 16 no. 2. Winter 1997. p 6.
[20] Adele Younis. The Coming of the Arabic-Speaking People to the United States. New York: Center for Migration Studies, 1995. (accessed November 1, 2013).
[21] Harper Barnes. “Lebanese Impact on St. Louis.” St. Louis General Scrapbook, V. 19. South Side Journal 1976. p 74.
[22] Eliane Fersan. "Syro-Lebanese Migration: 1880 to Present, Push and Pull Factors." Middle East Institute. http://www.mei.edu/content/syro-lebanese-migration-1880-present-“push”-and-“pull”-factors.
[23] Eliane Fersan. "Syro-Lebanese Migration: 1880 to Present, Push and Pull Factors." Middle East Institute. http://www.mei.edu/content/syro-lebanese-migration-1880-present-“push”-and-“pull”-factors.
[24] Truzzi, Oswaldo M. S., “The Right Place at the Right Time: Syrians and Lebanese in Brazil and the United States: A Comparitive Approach,” Journal of American Ethnic History.. V. 16 no. 2. Winter 1997. p 5.
[25] Ibid., 5.
[26] “St. Louis Lebanese Remember Heritage.” St. Louis General Scrapbook, V. 19. South Side Journal 1976. p 34.
[27] Immigrants Smuggles In From Mexico. 1906. St.Louis Post - Dispatch (1879-1922), Aug 18. http://search.proquest.com/docview/577658139?accountid=176.
[28] Oswaldo M. S. Truzzi, “The Right Place at the Right Time: Syrians and Lebanese in Brazil and the United States: A Comparitive Approach,” Journal of American Ethnic History.. V. 16 no. 2. Winter 1997. p 7.
[29] “Immigration for the Year Ending June 30,”The St. Louis Republic. (St. Louis, Mo.), 03 July 1902. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress. <http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84020274/1902-07-03/ed-1/seq-8/>
[30] “Syrians Beaten and Robbed,”The St. Louis Republic. (St. Louis, Mo.), 17 Oct. 1902. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress. <http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84020274/1902-10-17/ed-1/seq-5/>
[31] Ibid.
[32] “St. Louis Lebanese Remember Heritage.” St. Louis General Scrapbook, V. 19. South Side Journal 1976. p 34.
[33] St. Louis General Scrapbook, V. 19. 1976. p 113.
[34] Ibid.
[35] Most Undesirable Immigration. 1901. St.Louis Post - Dispatch (1879-1922), Oct 11. http://search.proquest.com/docview/577378553?accountid=176.
[36] Oswaldo M. S. Truzzi. “The Right Place at the Right Time: Syrians and Lebanese in Brazil and the United States: A Comparitive Approach,” Journal of American Ethnic History. V. 16 no. 2. Winter 1997. p 8.
[37] Harper Barnes. “Lebanese Impact on St. Louis.” St. Louis General Scrapbook, V. 19. South Side Journal 1976. p 74.
[38] “St. Louis Lebanese Remember Heritage.” St. Louis General Scrapbook, V. 19. South Side Journal 1976. p 34.
[39] Charles Issawi. "The Historical Background of Lebanese Emigration, 1800-1914 ." World Lebanese Cultural Union. http://www.ulcm.org/docs/default-source/newletter/the-historical-background-of-lebanese-emigration-1800-1914.pdf?sfvrsn=4 (accessed November 17, 2013).
[40] “Says Azza Was Victim of Plot,” The St. Louis Republic. (St. Louis, Mo.), 31 Oct. 1904. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress. <http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84020274/1904-10-31/ed-1/seq-7/>
[41] “Return of Seven Syrians is a Vexatious Problem,”The St. Louis Republic. (St. Louis, Mo.), 06 Dec. 1904. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress. <http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84020274/1904-12-06/ed-1/seq-3/>
[42] “Foreigners Going Home,” The St. Louis Republic. (St. Louis, Mo.), 27 Nov. 1904. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress. <http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84020274/1904-11-27/ed-1/seq-27/>
[43] “Scientists Complete Work of Investigating the Relations, Origins, and Racial Characteristics of Primitive Tribes at World’s Fair,” The St. Louis Republic. (St. Louis, Mo.), 04 Dec. 1904. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress. <http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84020274/1904-12-04/ed-1/seq-35/>
[44] Oswaldo M. S. Truzzi, “The Right Place at the Right Time: Syrians and Lebanese in Brazil and the United States: A Comparitive Approach,” Journal of American Ethnic History.. V. 16 no. 2. Winter 1997. p 16.
[45] “Immigration for the Year Ending June 30,”The St. Louis Republic. (St. Louis, Mo.), 03 July 1902. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress. <http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84020274/1902-07-03/ed-1/seq-8/>
[46] Lulu Clarke. 1909. LETTERS FROM THE PEOPLE. St.Louis Post - Dispatch (1879-1922), Nov 11. http://search.proquest.com/docview/577859083?accountid=176.
[47] Citizenship Is Taught To Illiterate Aliens. 1919. St.Louis Post - Dispatch (1879-1922), Dec 14. http://search.proquest.com/docview/578268963?accountid=176.

Natural Philosophy and Theology in Early Modern Europe: a Look at Kepler and Hobbes

Science of the Early Modern era was very different from what would be considered science today in the 21^st century.  Religion consists of the actual practices in a religious group, whereas theology describes how a group explains those practices and why they use them to explain the creation of the universe. [1]  For this reason, it is more appropriate to discuss theology and natural philosophy, as opposed to religion and science.  During the Early Modern period in Europe, theology and natural philosophy were at odds, two both attempting to explain the world in which they found themselves, yet both finding their own logic to create meaningful explanations for that world.

            Perhaps the correlation between the two opposing fields evolves strictly out of the fact that Europe was so heavily Christian, inside and out, the influence of the church on the state was unlike any period beforehand, leading to the reason some make associations between the two influencing one another.[2]  However, the age old practices of the church had to cause conflict with the new philosophy surrounding “science”.  The two had to have some connections and commonalities.  With the depth of church power, there was inevitable conflict between the two.

            When scientific societies began arising, the philosophers simply wanted to think freely about physical matters, the same as religious groups.  They wanted to find explanations for their world just the same as those involved in the religion of the day.  However, they were deviating from the norm, not wanting to give all of the answers directly to religion; they wanted to discover the truth for themselves through the use of natural philosophy, or inquiring about nature in general.[3]  By examining two individuals caught between these two opposing forces of theology and natural science, one can see a depth to the issues before them.  Thomas Hobbes, for example, can be thought of as taking the road of anti-religion, even though he attempted to make a balance between the two in order to not cause intense uprising or upsetting the church, so closely tied to the state.[4]  Johannes Kepler, on the other hand, sought to find answers within religion, but was not content in the ideas laid forth by any one religious group.  He preferred to piece together his own understanding of the Bible, but did not call himself an attendant of one particular church in Christianity.[5]  Hobbes and Kepler had two very different philosophies regarding the religion they were faced in Early Modern Europe.  Hobbes took the road less traveled, whereas Kepler attempted to truly figure things out for himself, struggling to find balance between the two, even though he did not realize just how much the world around him would be affected by his choice to neither choose the Roman Catholic Church, the Reformed Church, or the Lutheran Church.

            Kepler took a stand in Christianity that was not ready to be accepted among believers.  He tried to find the truth within the text of the Bible, only questioning those things that were not explicitly stated.  He simply wanted to know the real answers to life’s questions.  One topic that Kepler took very seriously, without realizing the future effects of his investigation was that of the Eucharist, or the blood and body of Christ taken at communion.  Kepler refused to believe an actual miracle occurred to turn the Eucharist into the blood and body of Christ, he believed moreover that these were simply objects or symbols of the religious practices.[6]  Not that Kepler had any problem with this religious ceremony, he just wanted to voice his opinion of this practices.  Of course, the powerful Roman Church did not approve of his opinion on this matter.  This was the division Kepler struggled with; The Roman Catholic Church believed the Eucharist to be a true miracle, but the Reformed Church saw the bread and wine as symbols.[7]  Due to Kepler’s scientific mindset, he could not accept these things that he did not fully understand or that were not outright stated in the text of the Holy Bible.  Kepler could not make himself choose a “side” in the battle between churches.

            Kepler believed natural philosophers showed God’s glory, instead of disproving God or explaining the world without God.  He felt that the more one knew about the world God created, the closer they came to God.  He did not see himself as an opponent of God and religion, but rather as “God’s priest” helping others to understand the awesome world God set into motion for his creation.  He believed the Bible was written for humans to understand, therefore there would have to be contradictions, but by delving deeper into the natural philosophies, one could better understand God. [8]  Kepler also believed that God created the world with empiricism, suggesting that mathematics could explain everything because God created the world with these particular universal laws to make things run smoothly and to help man understand the world.  This order was able to be discovered by man, once again helping man grow closer to the almighty God.[9]

            On the other end of the spectrum, Thomas Hobbes was a skeptic regarding just about every aspect of religion.  He doubted miracles, prophets, and the authenticity of the scriptures, among many other aspects of religion.[10]  In Hobbes’ “The Leviathan” and in particular his chapter entitled “of Religion,” Hobbes set forth his opinion of religion.  Hobbes saw neither “signs nor fruit of religion” but only in the mind of humankind.  He believed religion was simply a way for people to explain the world around them, whether or not they had true proof of it.  With his inquisitive mind, he could not accept the answers religion gave for the creation of the universe.  He said it was man’s nature to be “inquisitive about the causes of events they see,” the beginnings of things, and the general cause and effect cycle of life.[11]  In this way, Hobbes saw that man was always questioning, but when he could not unveil the “true” causes, or the ones that can only be found through science, man had to equate things to a higher power, or God.  This search for cause and effect made man anxious and Hobbes almost suggested that it was more logical for there to be many gods than one omnipotent God in control of the entire universe.  He said “acknowledging of one God eternal, infinite, and omnipotent God may more easily be derived from the desire men have to know the causes of natural bodies.”  In his suggestion, Hobbes says that the idea of God is created out of fear, merely a figment of man’s imagination, essentially.

            He suggests that the idea of immaterial spirits “could never enter into the mind of any man by nature,” taking the side of nature, revealing the true division between natural philosophy and theology.  Men “by their own meditation arrive to the acknowledgment of one infinite… God,” claiming that man only nameed God to give him praise and not to help people understand Him.[12]  He found a problem in the religious idea that it is impossible for people to truly know God, he could not live with this simple, inadequate explanation. Since the knowledge Hobbes had of religion was not proof enough for him, he took an approach to devise theology as part of man’s nature.  Hobbes much preferred to explain religion as a manifestation of human nature since he believed in the natural philosophy side of things. He also referred to “heathen philosophers” in a way that seemed to mock the religious.  He knew that those who were religious and believed in the one omnipotent God thought of the natural philosophers as “heathens.”[13]  He could clearly see the division between the two explanations of the world in which he lived.

            Both of these men helped explain the divisions apparent in everyday Early Modern life, but also the divisions which could be found within the “science” of it all.  Throughout their own individual opinions and findings, they were able to maintain their own explanations for that which they did not truly understand.  This showed a similarity between natural philosophy and theology.  Hobbes could not settle for the explanations given by the religious people of his time, so he devised a plan to explain their own theology in terms of his theology: science.  Kepler however is the example of one who could not choose between the two distinctions.  Kepler wanted to believe in one all powerful God, but found faults within the religion that man had created to explain God.  Together, these two men give an excellent example for how theology and the natural sciences were viewed during the Early Modern period: as opposing forces attempting to accomplish the same task.

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Chabot, Dana. "Thomas Hobbes: Skeptical Moralist." The American Political Science Review 89 (1995), http://www.jstor.org/stable/2082433 (accessed October 4, 2013).

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Hobbes, Thomas. "The Leviathan." Oregon State. http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/texts/hobbes/leviathan-b.html (accessed November 11, 2013).

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Rabieh, Michael S. . "The Reasonableness of Locke or the Questionableness of Christianity." The Journal of Politics 53 (1991), https://www.jstor.org/action/exportSingleCitation?singleCitation=true&doi=10.2307/2131861 (accessed November 1, 2013).

Seiler, Frederick. "The Role of Religion in the Scientific Revolution." The Objective Standard: Reason, Egoism, Capitalism. Vol. 7, no. 3. Fall 2012. http://www.theobjectivestandard.com/issues/2012-fall/religion-in-scientific-revolution.asp (accessed November 1, 2013).

Stauffer, Devin. ""Of Religion" in Hobbes's Leviathan." The Journal of Politics 72 (2010), http://www.jstor.org/stable/40784778 (accessed October 4, 2013).






[1] Margaret Osler. “Mixing Metaphors: Science and Religion or Natural Philosophy and Theology in Early Modern Europe.” 91.


[2] Frederick Seiler. "The Role of Religion in the Scientific Revolution."


[3] John Brooke. "Science and Religion: Lessons from History?" 1.


[4] Devin Stauffer. ""Of Religion" in Hobbes's Leviathan."


[5] Maximilian Lanzinner. "Johannes Kepler: A Man without Confession in the Age of Confessionalization?." 533.


[6]Maximilian Lanzinner. "Johannes Kepler: A Man without Confession in the Age of Confessionalization?." 537.


[7] Maximilian Lanzinner. "Johannes Kepler: A Man without Confession in the Age of Confessionalization?." 538.


[8] Maximilian Lanzinner. "Johannes Kepler: A Man without Confession in the Age of Confessionalization?." 542.


[9] Robin Attfield. "Science and Creation." 43.


[10] Chabot, Dana. "Thomas Hobbes: Skeptical Moralist." 401.


[11] Thomas Hobbes. "The Leviathan."


[12] Thomas Hobbes. "The Leviathan."


[13] Thomas Hobbes. "The Leviathan.