Syrian Immigration to St. Louis

Many immigrant groups made the long and difficult journey to America to settle in St. Louis. From all over the world, people flooded to the middle of an unknown country. With so many large groups such as the Germans and Italians in St. Louis, it can be difficult to remember those smaller bunches that made the same difficult decision to leave their homeland to attempt to live the American dream. Oftentimes immigration to America at the turn of the twentieth century focuses so heavily on European groups that the other “outsiders” are disregarded and forgotten. One smaller and often overlooked group are the Syrians, a hard-working and family-oriented group who began arriving in St. Louis in the 1880s. [1] In the busy St. Louis immigrant communities, Syrians were not seen as a major player; however, they have left a lasting imprint on the city. 

In order to examine a specific immigrant group to the St. Louis area, it is important to gain some background information about the group on the national scale. The Syrians came to America with Turkish passports, from a part of the world then known as the Ottoman Empire; however, they referred to themselves as Syrians, even though they were migrating from present day Lebanon, which was then referred to as Mount Lebanon.[2] The first immigrant arrived in 1854, which was unusual because many would not follow until the 1880s.[3] Syrian immigration nation-wide became steady in the 1870s, peaked in 1914, declined during WWI, and rose in the 1920s before finally declining after the Immigration Quota Act of 1929.[4] Many arrived in America with the hopes of making a great deal of money and returning to their homeland. The few who actually returned to Lebanon proved to have a profound impact on Lebanese society, giving more freedoms to women, a successful middle class, and an overall positive outlook on life. [5]

The Syrians who arrived in St. Louis started off in modern day Syria, but moved to modern-day Lebanon to avoid religious persecution. The majority of those who came to America, and all of those who arrived in St. Louis, were of the Maronite Catholic Church and had been afraid of persecution by the Ottoman Turks for following St. Maron. Because of this, they moved to Lebanon.[6] Since the Maronites were constantly persecuted, many fled to nearby Cyprus, while others fled to distant lands such as America.[7]

The story of the Syrians in St. Louis can be told through their church, St. Raymond’s Maronite Catholic Church, built in 1912. This church is still in existence today and it is an excellent starting point for discussions of the Syrian immigrants. Their history is rich and so closely connected to their faith that it only makes sense to begin there. This current church replaced the first Maronite church in St. Louis, St. Anthony of the Desert, built in 1898.[8] Even the simple dates on these two churches provide a great example of the Syrian immigration patterns in St. Louis. The tie to their faith is evident in the need for places of worship and the expansion of the church due to population increase. They began arriving heavily in St. Louis in the 1890s, which correlates to the creation of their first church, St. Anthony, in 1898.[9]

In St. Louis, the Syrian community which established itself in “Little Syria,” in what is now referred to as the Soulard neighborhood, was established by a group from Hadchit, in Modern day North-Central Lebanon. This neighborhood was located between what are now Choteau, Plum, 4th, and 2nd streets.[10] One of the first pastors at St. Raymond’s Maronite Church came directly from Hadchit in order to become priest.[11] The story passed down within St. Raymond’s Maronite Church says that eleven immigrants first arrived in St. Louis in 1856, starting off in tenement houses along the riverfront north of St. Louis. The wave of immigration did not really begin until the 1890s, whereas before it was simply a trickle of people arriving. They had hopes to return to Lebanon after reaching success in America, but they decided to stay.[12]

The groups that ended up in St. Louis were all from an area known as Mount Lebanon, specifically a town called Hadchit. An immigrant interviewed in 1976 commented that “maybe all St. Louis Syrian families are related far enough back,”[13] referring to the idea that these families probably would have known each other back in the homeland. In the Ottoman Empire, these families were originally living in modern day Syria, but were forced to move to Mount Lebanon due to religious and social pressures, and were eventually forced out of the Empire due to the same pressures. They were continually being harassed in Syria, so they decided to make the final decision to move to America. 

Many factors pushed the Syrians out of the Ottoman Empire. Most Middle Eastern countries knew little, if anything at all about America before the turn of the twentieth century. There was not even a common name for “America” in any Middle Eastern countries until nearly 1900.[14] The Syrians of Mount Lebanon were an exception. This group was heavily influenced by American missionaries through the education system in Syria. The high education rates and Christian influence allowed for this group to become more knowledgeable about the west.[15]

These Syrians originally left Syria for Mount Lebanon, or modern-day Lebanon, due to conflict with Ottoman Turks, and once again influenced to leave, this time moving from Lebanon to America. One push factor involved conflict between Maronite Christians and the Druze in 1840 and 1860. The Druze and Maronites, among other Christians, had cooperated well in the area known as Mount Lebanon from the sixteenth century until the mid-19th century. At that time, the Druze began to exert massive control over the Maronites, where previously they had encouraged their religious group and supported peace between the two cultures.[16] Higher birth rates among the Maronites as opposed to the Druze also caused further conflict, helping the Maronites to rise in power, leaving Druze to feel threatened.[17] The Druze are a branch of Islam with which many Christians in Syria had engaged in conflict with. In Mount Lebanon, there had been numerous massacres and disturbances between the Druze and Maronites, two major occurrences taking place in 1840 and 1860.[18]

Christianity was a major component in Syrian immigrants to America. Their culture was fully enriched in their religion and it was also the reason for their emigration from Syria. Ninety percent of Syrian immigrants to America were Christians.[19] The religious persecution they faced in the Ottoman Empire became the reason many Syrians fled for America. The Ottoman Turks were Muslim and there was constant violence between the two religious groups. Therefore, the minority group of Christians would be the ones to flee. Many Protestant missionaries also influenced Syrians to make the journey to America.[20] The Syrians who came to St. Louis were Maronite Catholic. In 1912, there were no Maronite bishops or seminaries in America, so the immigrants in St. Louis had to send for a preacher from their homeland. Father Joseph Karam headed the Maronites in St. Louis from 1912-1944.[21] Still today St. Raymond’s in St. Louis is the only Maronite Church in the state of Missouri and it was the first established west of the Mississippi River. 

They also felt pressures due to an increased involvement in ever-expanding trade. This globalization process of opening the Middle East with Europe in particular made the country more reliant on cash instead of ancient barter traditions that were much more common for these people. A “silk crisis” also occurred in 1890 due to competition with cheaper Chinese silks in the European market, causing some to seek out a new life elsewhere. Also due to Lebanon’s access to the Mediterranean and involvement in trade, it became easier for people to emigrate. They had easier access to ships and other transportation means. It was not simply that the Syrians wanted to head for America in particular; they wanted to leave Syria/Lebanon in general. Possibly 45% of Mount Lebanon’s population emigrated between 1860 to 1914. Many of those who left were young men and it is thought that many of the young men who left were seeking to evade military service.[22]

On top of it all, missionary schools were hard at work introducing Western culture to the Middle East, appealing to the young populations. This influx of new culture and ideas was appealing to the young population in Syria/Lebanon and they wanted to seek it out for themselves. Of course, the basic freedoms and American growth and wealth stories influenced those emigrating from the Middle East. [23]

The push and pull factors of the waves of Syrian immigration from the 1850s through the 1910s are necessary to gain an understanding of the group. Why would a people so unfamiliar with America and most of the West ever decide it was a good idea to travel thousands of miles away from their homeland? They faced hardships in Syria, but they were assured their situation would improve in America, troubles would calm down in Syria, and they would one day return home. Their religion held them together as a group in their homeland and in their new home across the globe in America. In St. Louis in particular, the Syrians found comfort in their religious life. This religion and the tensions with others is also one of the reasons they left their homeland in search of something better. Persecution at home and the occasional story of great success in America were the driving forces among this group, a common factor for many immigrant groups at the time. 

Syrians who came to America were escaping religious persecution in the Ottoman Empire and wanted anything to get out. “The question of the selection of their destination remained unimportant.” Syrians almost seemed not to care where they were heading as long as it was away from Syria and the Ottoman Turks. Interestingly, some of those Syrians who were refused entry into the United States settled in Brazil and Argentina in South America.[24] The circumstances that drove them from the Ottoman Empire gave the immigrants a desire for anything better. Many were simply ignorant of general geography and had little idea as to how large the Americas were. Many Syrians simply wanted to get to America; it did not matter if it was North or South.[25]

Syrians fled oppression of the Ottoman Empire to America, where they first settled in New York City and Boston, before they realized the factory life that was available in the East was not suitable for them. They decided to trek westward where they could follow business endeavors instead.[26] In at least one case, an individual was smuggled across the Mexican border to come to America. One individual John Shahadle Jacob claimed to come to St. Louis through Philadelphia, but later confessed after an investigation that he and friends were smuggled across the Mexican border into America.[27] This example shows how widespread Syrian immigration was in the United States. To show this connection between Missouri and Mexico establishes a greater understanding of the ways in which Syrians were able to arrive at their destination in the middle of the United States. 

In a similar way to the nationwide pattern, those who came to St. Louis often started out as peddlers and eventually rose to become grocers or open stores of other means. Peddling was not seen as a long-term profession but as a beginning in America, and it was essential to these immigrants. Moreover, peddling was a means of employment and was key to the assimilation process. It allowed for immigrants to become more accustomed to American culture and to learn the language.[28] An article stated that “you seldom find a Syrian engaged in manual labor. He starts out on a business career.” This was found to be true in the St. Louis region as well as nationwide.[29]

There was a documented case of Syrians beaten and robbed while trying to sell their goods in the mining town of Macon, Mo. In this instance, Syrians from other parts of the area arrived to assist in the apprehension of the suspects in this case. Syrians from as far away as Quincy, Illinois came in support of their fellow Syrians.[30] Those Syrians who assisted in this ordeal were quoted as saying, 

“Syrians came to America because it was known as a liberty-loving country and to escape the harsh rule of the Ottoman Empire… but they had never heard of a more brutal crime in the Orient than their kinsmen had been the victims of here.”[31]

Although many started out as peddlers, these immigrants always searched for a way to rise in society and, somewhat unique to St. Louis, many Syrian immigrants were drawn to a life in politics. 

Starting as early as 1911, the Slay family was on the political scene in the area.[32] Present-day mayor Francis Slay is a descendent of this same group of Slay politicians. Prominent names in the Syrian population of St. Louis also included Mizerany, Khoury, and Webbe.[33] Looking back on it, an interviewee stated that nearly all of the Syrian family names in the St. Louis area would be found in the political scene in some way in their history.[34] It was suitable for a Syrian immigrant to get involved as an alderman because he could relate to his neighborhood and Syrian-Americans would support “one of their own.” The immigrants had excellent social skills and could successfully work their way up the political ladder in St. Louis. 

Syrian immigrants in St. Louis showed some similarities to immigrants elsewhere in the nation. Although the bulk of Syrians in St. Louis arrived in the late 1880s and 1890s, Syrian immigration increased nationwide by 50 percent from 1900 to 1901.[35] According to a survey in 1907, ninety-four percent were coming to join friends and family in America.[36] In 1890, Syrian immigrants began arriving in St. Louis from other parts of the country, primarily the New England Region, although some were coming up from the South, according to Harper Barnes.[37] According to Barnes, many Syrians were “often better educated than other immigrants of the time.”[38] This education is attributed to the Catholic influence in Mount Lebanon.[39] This would allow them to succeed in many endeavors they wished to accomplish by coming to America.

Some of the first mentions of Syrians in St. Louis were through the news surrounding the World’s Fair.[40] Although these individuals did not settle in St. Louis as immigrants, they brought with them a particular culture that St. Louis could see and become exposed to if only within the context of the World’s Fair. Some found difficulties trying to return home after the World’s Fair, such as a group working at the Morocco exhibit. This exhibit underwent a change in ownership and the new owner at the conclusion of the Fair would not agree to pay the passage for the individuals to return home to Syria.[41] While others had to find their own way home, most Syrians working at the World’s Fair returned home through New York.[42] In addition, Syrians were used in the “shows” at the World’s Fair by being subjected to “scientific” research. Along with Native Americans, Africans, Chinese, and many others, they were subjected to tests and exams to “prove” the superiority of the white race above these other “primitive tribes.”[43]

Throughout the country, Syrians were referred to by many names. Syrians were sometimes acknowledged as “Turks” since they were coming from the Ottoman Empire, where there was a great mixture of cultures and ethnic groups. Some in America were simply ignorant of the differences in the people of the Middle East.[44] Greeks and Syrians were often confused nationwide. An excerpt from the St. Louis Republic from New York explained that “the Greeks and Syrians are indiscriminately mixed, [it is] difficult to distinguish them.”[45]

There was never an outright hatred for Syrians in St. Louis; however, that could be based on their relatively small population. St. Louis was full of immigrants, of which Syrians were a very small proportion. Although overall Syrians were successfully accepted into St. Louis society, some women in the area had a differing opinion of immigration groups in general. Some groups such as Turks and Syrians were given more rights than women, which caused women to voice their opinion. One even sent a letter to the editor of the Post Dispatch to express her outrage at this.[46] Not only was this an issue in women’s rights but it is also one example explaining how Syrians were received in St. Louis. On the other hand, some individuals such as Mrs. Frank de Garmo wanted to care for the immigrants and help them succeed. She taught literacy to immigrants such as Syrians, Croatians, and Serbians in St. Louis.[47] Syrians seemed to have been accepted well into St. Louis society and were surely able to make their own way in America. 

Syrians made their way successfully in St. Louis. Although their original intent was not to stay in St. Louis forever, but to return home with their money earned, they made the decision to stay put due to their positive acceptance and the way of life they had built for themselves. Their strong ties to the Maronite Catholic Church allowed them to create a community for themselves, with generations of rising group leaders who could influence the world around them. Although they were a small group in comparison to the many other immigrants who sought a new life in St. Louis, they still managed to make a name for themselves, one that still exists today. 

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[1] Ami Ayalon. "The Arab Discovery of America in the Nineteenth Century." 5. Middle Eastern Studies 20 (1984), http://www.jstor.org/stable/4283027.
[2] Tamie Dehler. "Genealogy: Syrian, Lebanese Immirants arrive in US in 1870s ." (2009), http://tribstar.com/history/x1896315608/Genealogy-Syrian-Lebanese-immigrants-arrived-in-U-S-in-1870s.
[3] Ami Ayalon. "The Arab Discovery of America in the Nineteenth Century." 5. Middle Eastern Studies 20 (1984), http://www.jstor.org/stable/4283027.
[4] Tamie Dehler. "Genealogy: Syrian, Lebanese Immirants arrive in US in 1870s ." (2009), http://tribstar.com/history/x1896315608/Genealogy-Syrian-Lebanese-immigrants-arrived-in-U-S-in-1870s
[5] Elizabeth Thompson."Akram Fouad Khater, Inventing Home: Emigration, Gender, and the Middle Class in Lebanon 1870-1920." The American Historical Review 107 (2002), http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/532837.
[6] Janet Baker & Ramona Milford. "Video History" St. Raymond's Maronite Cathedral. http://www.straymondsmaronitecathedral.com.
[7] Simone Paturel. “Reconstructing the History of the Cypriot Maronites.” Journal of Cyprus Studies 15, no. 37 (September 2009): 19-39. Academic Search Elite, EBSCOhost.
[8] Lebanon and it’s Cuisine. St. Raymond’s Maronite Catholic Church.
[9] Huisinga, Joan. The Churches of Soulard. St. Louis, Missouri, COS Inc, 1998.
[10] Ibid.
[11] Jennifer Brinker. "Lebanese priest, parish weave tale of dedication, commitment of Maronite Church here, abroad." St. Louis Review (2012), http://stlouisreview.com/article/2012-02-14/lebanese-priest.
[12] Janet Baker & Ramona Milford. "Video History" St. Raymond's Maronite Cathedral. http://www.straymondsmaronitecathedral.com.
[13] Harper Barnes. “Lebanese Impact on St. Louis.” St. Louis General Scrapbook, V. 19. South Side Journal 1976. p 74.
[14] Ami Ayalon. "The Arab Discovery of America in the Nineteenth Century." 5. Middle Eastern Studies 20 (1984), http://www.jstor.org/stable/4283027.
[15] Charles Issawi. "The Historical Background of Lebanese Emigration, 1800-1914 ." World Lebanese Cultural Union. http://www.ulcm.org/docs/default-source/newletter/the-historical-background-of-lebanese-emigration-1800-1914.pdf?sfvrsn=4.
[16] Kamal Salibi. "Druze History." Druze Heritage Foundation. http://www.druzeheritage.org/dhf/Druze_History.asp
[17]Charles Issawi."The Historical Background of Lebanese Emigration, 1800-1914 ." World Lebanese Cultural Union. http://www.ulcm.org/docs/default-source/newletter/the-historical-background-of-lebanese-emigration-1800-1914.pdf?sfvrsn=4
[18] "The Massacres of 1840-1860 in Mount Lebanon." Cedarland. http://www.kobayat.org/data/documents/historical/massacres1840.htm.
[19] Oswaldo M. S. Truzzi, “The Right Place at the Right Time: Syrians and Lebanese in Brazil and the United States: A Comparitive Approach,” Journal of American Ethnic History.. V. 16 no. 2. Winter 1997. p 6.
[20] Adele Younis. The Coming of the Arabic-Speaking People to the United States. New York: Center for Migration Studies, 1995. (accessed November 1, 2013).
[21] Harper Barnes. “Lebanese Impact on St. Louis.” St. Louis General Scrapbook, V. 19. South Side Journal 1976. p 74.
[22] Eliane Fersan. "Syro-Lebanese Migration: 1880 to Present, Push and Pull Factors." Middle East Institute. http://www.mei.edu/content/syro-lebanese-migration-1880-present-“push”-and-“pull”-factors.
[23] Eliane Fersan. "Syro-Lebanese Migration: 1880 to Present, Push and Pull Factors." Middle East Institute. http://www.mei.edu/content/syro-lebanese-migration-1880-present-“push”-and-“pull”-factors.
[24] Truzzi, Oswaldo M. S., “The Right Place at the Right Time: Syrians and Lebanese in Brazil and the United States: A Comparitive Approach,” Journal of American Ethnic History.. V. 16 no. 2. Winter 1997. p 5.
[25] Ibid., 5.
[26] “St. Louis Lebanese Remember Heritage.” St. Louis General Scrapbook, V. 19. South Side Journal 1976. p 34.
[27] Immigrants Smuggles In From Mexico. 1906. St.Louis Post - Dispatch (1879-1922), Aug 18. http://search.proquest.com/docview/577658139?accountid=176.
[28] Oswaldo M. S. Truzzi, “The Right Place at the Right Time: Syrians and Lebanese in Brazil and the United States: A Comparitive Approach,” Journal of American Ethnic History.. V. 16 no. 2. Winter 1997. p 7.
[29] “Immigration for the Year Ending June 30,”The St. Louis Republic. (St. Louis, Mo.), 03 July 1902. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress. <http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84020274/1902-07-03/ed-1/seq-8/>
[30] “Syrians Beaten and Robbed,”The St. Louis Republic. (St. Louis, Mo.), 17 Oct. 1902. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress. <http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84020274/1902-10-17/ed-1/seq-5/>
[31] Ibid.
[32] “St. Louis Lebanese Remember Heritage.” St. Louis General Scrapbook, V. 19. South Side Journal 1976. p 34.
[33] St. Louis General Scrapbook, V. 19. 1976. p 113.
[34] Ibid.
[35] Most Undesirable Immigration. 1901. St.Louis Post - Dispatch (1879-1922), Oct 11. http://search.proquest.com/docview/577378553?accountid=176.
[36] Oswaldo M. S. Truzzi. “The Right Place at the Right Time: Syrians and Lebanese in Brazil and the United States: A Comparitive Approach,” Journal of American Ethnic History. V. 16 no. 2. Winter 1997. p 8.
[37] Harper Barnes. “Lebanese Impact on St. Louis.” St. Louis General Scrapbook, V. 19. South Side Journal 1976. p 74.
[38] “St. Louis Lebanese Remember Heritage.” St. Louis General Scrapbook, V. 19. South Side Journal 1976. p 34.
[39] Charles Issawi. "The Historical Background of Lebanese Emigration, 1800-1914 ." World Lebanese Cultural Union. http://www.ulcm.org/docs/default-source/newletter/the-historical-background-of-lebanese-emigration-1800-1914.pdf?sfvrsn=4 (accessed November 17, 2013).
[40] “Says Azza Was Victim of Plot,” The St. Louis Republic. (St. Louis, Mo.), 31 Oct. 1904. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress. <http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84020274/1904-10-31/ed-1/seq-7/>
[41] “Return of Seven Syrians is a Vexatious Problem,”The St. Louis Republic. (St. Louis, Mo.), 06 Dec. 1904. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress. <http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84020274/1904-12-06/ed-1/seq-3/>
[42] “Foreigners Going Home,” The St. Louis Republic. (St. Louis, Mo.), 27 Nov. 1904. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress. <http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84020274/1904-11-27/ed-1/seq-27/>
[43] “Scientists Complete Work of Investigating the Relations, Origins, and Racial Characteristics of Primitive Tribes at World’s Fair,” The St. Louis Republic. (St. Louis, Mo.), 04 Dec. 1904. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress. <http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84020274/1904-12-04/ed-1/seq-35/>
[44] Oswaldo M. S. Truzzi, “The Right Place at the Right Time: Syrians and Lebanese in Brazil and the United States: A Comparitive Approach,” Journal of American Ethnic History.. V. 16 no. 2. Winter 1997. p 16.
[45] “Immigration for the Year Ending June 30,”The St. Louis Republic. (St. Louis, Mo.), 03 July 1902. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress. <http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84020274/1902-07-03/ed-1/seq-8/>
[46] Lulu Clarke. 1909. LETTERS FROM THE PEOPLE. St.Louis Post - Dispatch (1879-1922), Nov 11. http://search.proquest.com/docview/577859083?accountid=176.
[47] Citizenship Is Taught To Illiterate Aliens. 1919. St.Louis Post - Dispatch (1879-1922), Dec 14. http://search.proquest.com/docview/578268963?accountid=176.

Natural Philosophy and Theology in Early Modern Europe: a Look at Kepler and Hobbes

Science of the Early Modern era was very different from what would be considered science today in the 21^st century.  Religion consists of the actual practices in a religious group, whereas theology describes how a group explains those practices and why they use them to explain the creation of the universe. [1]  For this reason, it is more appropriate to discuss theology and natural philosophy, as opposed to religion and science.  During the Early Modern period in Europe, theology and natural philosophy were at odds, two both attempting to explain the world in which they found themselves, yet both finding their own logic to create meaningful explanations for that world.

            Perhaps the correlation between the two opposing fields evolves strictly out of the fact that Europe was so heavily Christian, inside and out, the influence of the church on the state was unlike any period beforehand, leading to the reason some make associations between the two influencing one another.[2]  However, the age old practices of the church had to cause conflict with the new philosophy surrounding “science”.  The two had to have some connections and commonalities.  With the depth of church power, there was inevitable conflict between the two.

            When scientific societies began arising, the philosophers simply wanted to think freely about physical matters, the same as religious groups.  They wanted to find explanations for their world just the same as those involved in the religion of the day.  However, they were deviating from the norm, not wanting to give all of the answers directly to religion; they wanted to discover the truth for themselves through the use of natural philosophy, or inquiring about nature in general.[3]  By examining two individuals caught between these two opposing forces of theology and natural science, one can see a depth to the issues before them.  Thomas Hobbes, for example, can be thought of as taking the road of anti-religion, even though he attempted to make a balance between the two in order to not cause intense uprising or upsetting the church, so closely tied to the state.[4]  Johannes Kepler, on the other hand, sought to find answers within religion, but was not content in the ideas laid forth by any one religious group.  He preferred to piece together his own understanding of the Bible, but did not call himself an attendant of one particular church in Christianity.[5]  Hobbes and Kepler had two very different philosophies regarding the religion they were faced in Early Modern Europe.  Hobbes took the road less traveled, whereas Kepler attempted to truly figure things out for himself, struggling to find balance between the two, even though he did not realize just how much the world around him would be affected by his choice to neither choose the Roman Catholic Church, the Reformed Church, or the Lutheran Church.

            Kepler took a stand in Christianity that was not ready to be accepted among believers.  He tried to find the truth within the text of the Bible, only questioning those things that were not explicitly stated.  He simply wanted to know the real answers to life’s questions.  One topic that Kepler took very seriously, without realizing the future effects of his investigation was that of the Eucharist, or the blood and body of Christ taken at communion.  Kepler refused to believe an actual miracle occurred to turn the Eucharist into the blood and body of Christ, he believed moreover that these were simply objects or symbols of the religious practices.[6]  Not that Kepler had any problem with this religious ceremony, he just wanted to voice his opinion of this practices.  Of course, the powerful Roman Church did not approve of his opinion on this matter.  This was the division Kepler struggled with; The Roman Catholic Church believed the Eucharist to be a true miracle, but the Reformed Church saw the bread and wine as symbols.[7]  Due to Kepler’s scientific mindset, he could not accept these things that he did not fully understand or that were not outright stated in the text of the Holy Bible.  Kepler could not make himself choose a “side” in the battle between churches.

            Kepler believed natural philosophers showed God’s glory, instead of disproving God or explaining the world without God.  He felt that the more one knew about the world God created, the closer they came to God.  He did not see himself as an opponent of God and religion, but rather as “God’s priest” helping others to understand the awesome world God set into motion for his creation.  He believed the Bible was written for humans to understand, therefore there would have to be contradictions, but by delving deeper into the natural philosophies, one could better understand God. [8]  Kepler also believed that God created the world with empiricism, suggesting that mathematics could explain everything because God created the world with these particular universal laws to make things run smoothly and to help man understand the world.  This order was able to be discovered by man, once again helping man grow closer to the almighty God.[9]

            On the other end of the spectrum, Thomas Hobbes was a skeptic regarding just about every aspect of religion.  He doubted miracles, prophets, and the authenticity of the scriptures, among many other aspects of religion.[10]  In Hobbes’ “The Leviathan” and in particular his chapter entitled “of Religion,” Hobbes set forth his opinion of religion.  Hobbes saw neither “signs nor fruit of religion” but only in the mind of humankind.  He believed religion was simply a way for people to explain the world around them, whether or not they had true proof of it.  With his inquisitive mind, he could not accept the answers religion gave for the creation of the universe.  He said it was man’s nature to be “inquisitive about the causes of events they see,” the beginnings of things, and the general cause and effect cycle of life.[11]  In this way, Hobbes saw that man was always questioning, but when he could not unveil the “true” causes, or the ones that can only be found through science, man had to equate things to a higher power, or God.  This search for cause and effect made man anxious and Hobbes almost suggested that it was more logical for there to be many gods than one omnipotent God in control of the entire universe.  He said “acknowledging of one God eternal, infinite, and omnipotent God may more easily be derived from the desire men have to know the causes of natural bodies.”  In his suggestion, Hobbes says that the idea of God is created out of fear, merely a figment of man’s imagination, essentially.

            He suggests that the idea of immaterial spirits “could never enter into the mind of any man by nature,” taking the side of nature, revealing the true division between natural philosophy and theology.  Men “by their own meditation arrive to the acknowledgment of one infinite… God,” claiming that man only nameed God to give him praise and not to help people understand Him.[12]  He found a problem in the religious idea that it is impossible for people to truly know God, he could not live with this simple, inadequate explanation. Since the knowledge Hobbes had of religion was not proof enough for him, he took an approach to devise theology as part of man’s nature.  Hobbes much preferred to explain religion as a manifestation of human nature since he believed in the natural philosophy side of things. He also referred to “heathen philosophers” in a way that seemed to mock the religious.  He knew that those who were religious and believed in the one omnipotent God thought of the natural philosophers as “heathens.”[13]  He could clearly see the division between the two explanations of the world in which he lived.

            Both of these men helped explain the divisions apparent in everyday Early Modern life, but also the divisions which could be found within the “science” of it all.  Throughout their own individual opinions and findings, they were able to maintain their own explanations for that which they did not truly understand.  This showed a similarity between natural philosophy and theology.  Hobbes could not settle for the explanations given by the religious people of his time, so he devised a plan to explain their own theology in terms of his theology: science.  Kepler however is the example of one who could not choose between the two distinctions.  Kepler wanted to believe in one all powerful God, but found faults within the religion that man had created to explain God.  Together, these two men give an excellent example for how theology and the natural sciences were viewed during the Early Modern period: as opposing forces attempting to accomplish the same task.

Bibliography

Attfield, Robin. "Science and Creation." The Journal of Religion 58 (1978), http://www.jstor.org/stable/1201614 (accessed October 4, 2013).

Brooke, John. "Science and Religion: Lessons from History?" American Association for the Advancement of Science 282 (1998), http://www.jstor.org/stable/2897588 (accessed October 4, 2013).

Chabot, Dana. "Thomas Hobbes: Skeptical Moralist." The American Political Science Review 89 (1995), http://www.jstor.org/stable/2082433 (accessed October 4, 2013).

Harrison, Peter. ""Science" and "Religion": Constructing the Boundaries." The Journal of Religion 86 (2006), http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/497085 (accessed October 4, 2013).

Hobbes, Thomas. "The Leviathan." Oregon State. http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/texts/hobbes/leviathan-b.html (accessed November 11, 2013).

Lanzinner, Maximilian. "Johannes Kepler: A Man without Confession in the Age of Confessionalization?."Central European History 36 (2003), http://www.jstor.org/stable/4547352 (accessed October 4, 2013).

Osler, Margaret J. “Mixing Metaphors: Science and Religion or Natural Philosophy and Theology in Early Modern Europe.” University of Calgary. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.104.9578&rep=rep1&type=pdf (accessed November 1, 2013).

Rabieh, Michael S. . "The Reasonableness of Locke or the Questionableness of Christianity." The Journal of Politics 53 (1991), https://www.jstor.org/action/exportSingleCitation?singleCitation=true&doi=10.2307/2131861 (accessed November 1, 2013).

Seiler, Frederick. "The Role of Religion in the Scientific Revolution." The Objective Standard: Reason, Egoism, Capitalism. Vol. 7, no. 3. Fall 2012. http://www.theobjectivestandard.com/issues/2012-fall/religion-in-scientific-revolution.asp (accessed November 1, 2013).

Stauffer, Devin. ""Of Religion" in Hobbes's Leviathan." The Journal of Politics 72 (2010), http://www.jstor.org/stable/40784778 (accessed October 4, 2013).






[1] Margaret Osler. “Mixing Metaphors: Science and Religion or Natural Philosophy and Theology in Early Modern Europe.” 91.


[2] Frederick Seiler. "The Role of Religion in the Scientific Revolution."


[3] John Brooke. "Science and Religion: Lessons from History?" 1.


[4] Devin Stauffer. ""Of Religion" in Hobbes's Leviathan."


[5] Maximilian Lanzinner. "Johannes Kepler: A Man without Confession in the Age of Confessionalization?." 533.


[6]Maximilian Lanzinner. "Johannes Kepler: A Man without Confession in the Age of Confessionalization?." 537.


[7] Maximilian Lanzinner. "Johannes Kepler: A Man without Confession in the Age of Confessionalization?." 538.


[8] Maximilian Lanzinner. "Johannes Kepler: A Man without Confession in the Age of Confessionalization?." 542.


[9] Robin Attfield. "Science and Creation." 43.


[10] Chabot, Dana. "Thomas Hobbes: Skeptical Moralist." 401.


[11] Thomas Hobbes. "The Leviathan."


[12] Thomas Hobbes. "The Leviathan."


[13] Thomas Hobbes. "The Leviathan.

Chumash Indians

Abstract:

This paper presents a brief history of the Chumash Indians who occupy Southern California, as well as a look into present-day issues affecting this group.  The Santa Ynez Reservation is the only federally recognized group of the Chumash and have played a major role in some of the political and environmental issues that face the local Southern California coastline.  Taking a look at their history is essential to understanding their struggles with the mainstream world they find themselves in today.

Introduction:

            The name Chumash was not a term given to these Indians by Europeans.  It is suggested that it is a term used to describe the group by other Chumash Indians, particularly those living on the Channel Islands.  However, it is unknown what they called themselves before Europeans arrived.[1]  The Chumash began losing their culture early on.  By living on the missions and eventually falling into the hands of ranchers, these Indians were secluded from outside groups and their culture was surely affected.[2]

The Chumash Indians lived in California along the coast and further inland in the areas surrounding modern-day Santa Barbara, including the Channel Islands off the coast.  These Channel Islands made for an excellent habitat for these Indians due to their protection from the weather of the ocean and the abundant marine life that accompanied this protection in the Channel.  Estimates suggest that about 20,000 people made up this group, which is a rather large number in comparison to other native groups.[3]  Today there are more than 5,000 people who identify themselves as Chumash Indian.[4]  It is suggested that they occupied cities large enough for 1,000 inhabitants, a density of ten people per square mile throughout their lands.[5]  The climate allows for the land to be very productive with the exception of El Nino years.  The weather is generally cool with hot summers.  The abundant ocean and marine life were essential to this group. [6]

            The language spoken by the Chumash is known as Chumashan and there are different dialects, some of which the groups would have been able to comprehend, and others that were unintelligible to them.  Their language is also not strikingly similar to any other Indian groups, suggesting they have been around for a long time before others arrived.[7]  These various languages are no longer spoken, but in recent times there has been a revival of Chumash culture, with some interested in bringing these languages back.[8]

            When Europeans began arriving in the 16^th century, the Chumash Indians did not seem to be heavily impacted at first.  However, once missions were established, such as Santa Barbara in 1786, the Chumash were beginning to indulge in European trade and connections.  Due to overcrowding in missions, the Chumash were nearly wiped out by epidemics such as the measles epidemic in 1806. [9]

            The political structure of the Chumash is often referred to as consisting of chiefdoms.  They also were connected through confederations of allied villages.  They did not participate in much warfare outside of the confederations. They had two leaders; a hereditary chief called the wot, and a ceremonial leader called the paxa.  These positions were very often handed down from father to son in a hereditary fashion.[10]  The Chumash had a monetary system in place using particularly the Olivella shell as money.  They controlled much of the money supply in Southern California, leaving them quite wealthy compared to the other Indian groups in the area.[11]

            Today the Chumash are very interested in politics as well as in preserving the environment around the Santa Barbara area.  Santa Ynez is the only federally recognized tribe of the Chumash, although there are still many more active tribes.[12]  They were named the top climate change fighter by Indian Country Today in October 2013 for their efforts at building efficiency and alternative energy to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, as well as by the New Times Sun in.[13]  They were highlighted for their use of energy efficient exhaust fans, solar panels, reusing vegetable oils as fuel, and many other great environmental efforts at the Chumash Casino Resost.  The Barbareno Chumash Council are responsible for annual channel crossing events to help preserve heritage by using traditional tomols, or canoes.  During the channel crossing, they create a village on the island and host activities to remind the group of their culture, both for adults and children.[14]  They host Coastal Cleanup Day, take interest in sustaining culturally significant plants, and take part in many other environmental efforts in Southern California.[15]  They also make a great effort to get the younger generation involved through youth camps and various internships, particularly through The Santa Ynez Chumash Environmental Office, a very active group associated with the reservation that takes great care of the environment and issues surrounding it.[16]  By getting the youth involved in taking care of the environment through many events and opportunities, the Chumash are making sure they keep their culture and community alive, while also caring for the land they hold so dear.  

They have a constitution similar to that of the United States.  They compare themselves to a corporation, although they are a sovereign government.  They hold tribal membership votes to decide major tribal issues to help the betterment of the group.  They are a democracy where motions are made, seconded, and ballots are mailed out to all members who are highly encouraged to vote.  They also conduct elections every two year in order to choose the Business Committee members and Tribal Chairman.[17]

            These elected positions are non-paid; they simply serve on behalf of the tribe.  The tribal voting age is 21 and there are 154 enrolled members in the tribe.  The current Tribal Chairman is Vincent Armenta, Vice Chairman is Richard Gomez, the Secretary/Treasurer is Kenneth Kahn, and David Dominguez and Gary Pace are Business Committee members.[18]  They have an Elders Council of those aged 50 years and older.  The Elders are responsible for protecting and preserving the cultural resources of the tribe.  They have seven leading members who are specifically called upon to maintain the tribe’s heritage, traditions, and history.  This Elders Council deals with artifacts, human remains, archaeology, and many other issues the tribe constantly faces.[19]  They seem to have frequent tribal meetings; however their website meeting date list has not been updated since 2011.[20]

            In 2012 and again in September 2013, the Chumash opposed seismic testing off the coast of California for fear of endangering marine life, not to mention sacred cultural sites.[21]  Their attempts at deflecting these tests were not successful.   They attend the West Coast Governors Alliance on Ocean Health along with many Indians from Washington, Oregon, and California to discuss environmental issues impacting the West coast and what efforts should be made to correct the wrongdoings that have come about in their lands.[22]  Even this meeting of US governors find particular interest in the Indians who live along the West coast.[23]  Down to the core, the Chumash are extremely concerned with their environment and strive to conserve their resources.

            The Chumash Indians of Southern California have a long and rich history as some of the very first Indians to inhabit North America.  They take pride in their heritage and work effectively to help the younger generation become knowledgeable about their culture.  They also take great strides to protect the environment, realizing that is what sustained their people for thousands of years before Europeans arrived and changed everything.  They work together with other groups to fight for the marine life and other cultural aspects that are so meaningful to their culture, having been acknowledged by many as truly having some of the best environmental practices towards preservation of the coastal lands.  The Chumash are a bold people who take pride in their ancestral land.

           

Bibliography



Barbareno Chumash Council. http://www.barbarenochumashcouncil.com/ (accessed November 11, 2013).



Northern Chumash Tribal Council. http://northernchumash.wordpress.com/ (accessed November 11, 2013).



Schertow, John Anhi. "Chumash Indians Speak Out Against Seismic Testing Off California Coast." IC Magazine. http://intercontinentalcry.org/chumash-nation-speak-out-against-seismic-testing-off-california-coast/ (accessed November 11, 2013).



Sutton, Mark Q. An Introduction to Native North America. Boston: Pearson, 2012.



Santa Ynez Band of Chumash Indians. http://www.santaynezchumash.org/government.html (accessed November 11, 2013).



"Santa Ynez Chumash Environmental Office." http://syceo.org/ (accessed November 21, 2013).



West Coast Governors Alliance on Ocean Health. http://www.westcoastoceans.org/ (accessed November 11, 2013).






[1] Mark Q. Sutton, 181.


[2] Ibid., 183.


[3] Mark Q. Sutton, 181.


[4] Ibid., 188.


[5] Ibid.,, 183.


[6] Ibid., 182.


[7] Ibid., 183.


[8] Ibid., 188.


[9] Mark Q. Sutton, 183.


[10] Ibid., 184.


[11] Ibid., 185.


[12] Ibid.,, 188.


[13] "Santa Ynez Chumash Environmental Office."


[14] Barbareno Chumash Council.


[15] "Santa Ynez Chumash Environmental Office Blog”


[16] "Santa Ynez Chumash Environmental Office."


[17] "Tribal Government." Santa Ynez Band of Chumash Indians.


[18] “Business Committee.” Santa Ynez Band of Chumash Indians.


[19] “Elders Council.” Santa Ynez Band of Chumash Indians.


[20] “Office of Indian Affairs” Santa Ynez Band of Chumash Indians.


[21] Schertow, John Anhi. "Chumash Indians Speak Out Against Seismic Testing Off California Coast."


[22] Northern Chumash Tribal Council.


[23] West Coast Governors Alliance on Ocean Health.